Use of fructokinases and sucrose synthases for increasing cell wall polymers

ABSTRACT

The invention relates to transgenic plants exhibiting increased cell wall content. In one embodiment, transgenic plants engineered to over-express fructokinase (FRK) or both FRK and sucrose synthase (SuSy) are provided. The FRK+SuSy double-transgenic plants of the invention consistently exhibit enhanced cell wall polymer deposition.

Plant cell walls are the primary constituents of many plant products including wood. Wood is being used for many commercial purposes such as pulp for the paper industry, energy production and construction. Wood is composed primarily from cell walls of the secondary xylem which includes the plant vascular tissues. Cell wall synthesis is entirely dependent on sugar metabolism. Some of the sugar (usually sucrose) transported in the vascular tissues is being used for production and development of the wood.

Most F′RKs are expressed in vascular tissues and affect vascular development. Specifically, increased expression of FRK2, the major FRK in vascular tissues of tomato plants, enhanced cellulose and lignin synthesis and increased cell wall content. FRK1, which unlike FRK2, is not inhibited by increasing concentrations of fructose further enhances cell wall synthesis.

Sucrose synthase (SuSy) which cleaves sucrose into UDP-glucose and fructose, is the major sucrose cleaving enzyme in vascular tissues. Applicants found that SuSy and FRK are co-expressed in vascular tissues. Similar to FRK2, SuSy enzymatic activity is feedback inhibited by its end-product, fructose. Fructose released from the cleavage of sucrose by SuSy inhibits and down regulates SuSy activity. As a consequence, the amount of sucrose allocated for vascular and xylem development is restricted by the accumulating fructose. Thus, increased activity of FRK that phosphorylates fructose and lowers fructose concentration would enhance SuSy activity and allocation of sucrose to vascular and xylem development.

Two major components of vascular tissues are xylem and phloem. Xylem transports water and minerals from roots to shoot, while phloem translocates sugars from source (leaves) to sink (non-photosynthetic) tissues. In many plants, the transported sugar is primarily sucrose. Some of the transported sucrose is being cleaved in the vascular tissues to support vascular development.

Cell walls are comprised primarily of polymers of simple sugar monomers linked in a variety of linear or branched polymers known as polysaccharides. The most abundant simple sugar monomer is glucose, and the most abundant polymer is cellulose. Cellulose is a linear, unbranched polymer, comprised of .beta.-1,4 linked glucose monomers. Other polysaccharides found in plant cell walls include hemicelluloses, which comprise a group of polysaccharides composed of .beta.-1,4 linked glucose monomers having side chains which may include sugars other than glucose, including xylose, fucose, arabinose, and galactose. Hemicelluloses are a heterogeneous mixture of polysaccharides, the composition of which varies substantially for different plants. Hemicelluloses are defined, operationally, as that polymer fraction which may be extracted from the cell wall with alkali.

The secondary walls may comprise a considerable amount of lignin in addition to cellulose, pectins and hemicelluloses. Lignin is an insoluble polymer that is primarily responsible for the rigidity of plant stems. Specifically, lignin serves as a matrix around the polysaccharide components of some plant cell walls. In general, the higher the lignin content, the more rigid the plant. For example, tree species synthesize large quantities of lignin, with lignin constituting between 20% to 30% of the dry weight of wood. The lignin content of grasses ranges from 2-8% of dry weight and changes during the growing season. In addition to providing rigidity, lignin aids in water transport within plants by rendering cell walls hydrophobic and water impermeable. Lignin also plays a role in disease resistance of plants by impeding the penetration and propagation of pathogenic agents.

Secondary cell walls form after cessation of cell growth and enlargement. Unlike primary cell walls, secondary cell walls can adopt highly specialized structures and compositions. For example, xylem cells, such as those found in wood, have thickened secondary walls that are strengthened by lignin.

Sucrose, a disaccharide, can be cleaved by either sucrose synthase (SuSy), likely the main sucrose cleaving enzyme in the vascular system, into UDP-glucose and fructose, or by invertase into glucose and fructose (Koch 2004). Consequently, fructose is destined to be one of the most abundant monosaccharides produced through the cleavage of sucrose.

While UDP-glucose is immediately available for cellulose synthesis, free fructose must first be phosphorylated by either hexokinase (HXK) or fructokinase (FRK) for further metabolism. In the absence HXK or FRK the accumulating fructose might cause feedback inhibition of SuSy activity, reducing sucrose cleavage (Schaffer and Petreikov 1997a). HXK and FRK are distinguished by their substrate specificities and affinities (Granot 2007). HXK may phosphorylate both glucose and fructose, but its affinity to fructose is two orders of magnitude lower than its affinity to glucose, as well as two orders of magnitude lower than the affinity of FRK to fructose. Thus fructose is likely to be primarily phosphorylated by FRK (Granot 2007).

FRKs and SuSys exist in all plants examined so far and are probably obligatory in plants. They exist in perennials and annuals, gymnosperm and angiosperm, dicots and monocots, trees, bushes and grasses, as well as all crops studied. For example they exist in aspen, cotton, tomato, sugar beet, potato, soybean, barely, avocado, spinach, lily, camellia, pea, maize, rice, melon and Arabidopsis. Goren et al. 2011, shows the existence of sucrose synthase in numerous species (FIG. 2, Table 2 and the supplemental FIG. 1 in Goren et al. 2011).

Tomato is a species in which four FRK genes, FRK1-4, have been cloned and characterized (Dai et aL 2002, Damari-Weissler et aL 2006, Damari-Weissler et aL 2009, German et al. 2004, German et al. 2003, Granot 2007, Odanaka et al. 2002). FRK1, FRK2 and FRK3 are expressed in all plant parts examined (German et al., 2004), while FRK4 is expressed only in stamens (German et al. 2002). FRK2 and FRK3 enzymes, as mentioned above, manifest substrate inhibition. They are inhibited by their own substrate, fructose, when its concentration exceeds 1 mM (Dai et al. 1997, German et al., Granot 2004, Petreikov et al. 2001). FRK1 activity, on the other hand, is not inhibited by fructose.

Sucrose synthase (SuSy), which cleaves sucrose into UDP-glucose and fructose, is the major sucrose cleaving enzyme in vascular tissues. Western blot analysis of tomato SuSy protein showed an increasing SuSy expression gradient along the developmental axis of the tomato stem, with the protein concentrated mainly in the xylem tissue of the stem (Goren et al. 2011). SuSy1, the major SuSy gene in tomato plants, and FRK2 are co-expressed in vascular tissues.

Similar to FRK2, SuSy activity is also inhibited by fructose (a phenomenon of product inhibition or feedback inhibition) and therefore, fructose released from the cleavage of sucrose by SuSy inhibits SuSy activity. As a consequence, the amount of sucrose allocated for vascular and xylem development is restricted by the accumulating fructose.

The tomato FRK2 (LeFRK2) is the major fructokinase gene expressed in most tissues, including stems, roots and leaves (German et al., 2004, German et al., 2002, Kanayama et al. 1997, Kanayama et al. 1998). To study the role of LeFRK2 in tomato plants, Applicants previously generated and analyzed transgenic tomato plants with antisense suppression or co-suppression of LeFRK2 (Dai at al., 2002, German et al., 2003). These antisense plants exhibited growth inhibition and wilting of young leaves during the day. Triple-grafting experiments, in which an antisense interstock replaced a portion of the wild-type stem, demonstrated that an antisense interstock is sufficient to inhibit growth and cause leaf wilting, suggesting that LeFRK2 is required for proper stern functioning. Furthermore, the cumulative area of active xylem in stems of antisense plants was smaller than that of wild-type plants, suggesting that LeFRK2 is required for stern xylem development. Applicants showed that suppression of LeFRK2 results in a significant reduction in the size of vascular cells and slowed fiber maturation. The xylem vessels in sterns of LeFRK2-antisense plants were narrower than in WT plants and have thinner secondary cell walls. Although the cambium produces rounded secondary vessels, these vessels become deformed during the early stages of xylem maturation. Water conductance is then reduced in stems, roots and leaves, suggesting that LeFRK2 influences xylem development throughout the entire vascular system. Suppression of LeFRK2 reduced also the length and width of the sieve (phloem) elements.

Applicants have discovered that fructokinases (FRKs) (fructose phosphorylating enzymes) are the major enzymes regulating the amount of sugars directed toward wood development. Plants have several FRK isozymes with different intracellular location and biochemical characteristics. Sucrose metabolism using FRK and SuSy has an end effect on increased cellulose and lignin (cell wall polymers) production through its effect on carbon partitioning, The over-expression of FRK or the simultaneous over-expression of FRK and SuSy results in enhanced cell wall polymer deposition.

There exists a need for efficiently using genes that regulate plant cell wall synthesis and development. FRKs, alone or with SuSy may be used to increase cellulose, cell wall and wood production in commercial plants, especially in trees and plants used for biomass production.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to transgenic plants exhibiting enhanced growth of plant and plant cell wall. It has been found that increased expression of FRK and increased co-expression of both SuSy and FRK further accelerates sucrose cleavage and allocation of sugars to vascular and xylem development resulting in thickened secondary cell wall.

In one embodiment, transgenic plants engineered to over-express fructokinases (FRKs) are provided. The FRK-transgenic plants of the invention consistently exhibit enhanced plant growth rate and increased biomass and cell wall characteristics.

In another embodiment, transgenic plants engineered to over-express both fructokinases (FRKs) and sucrose synthase (SUS) are provided. The FRK+SUS double-transgenic plants of the invention consistently exhibit enhanced plant growth rate and increased biomass and cell wall characteristics. According to the present invention, transgenic plants exhibiting such enhanced cell wall-growth phenotypic characteristics are generated with several individual plant species, using various transformation methodologies, different expression vectors and promoters, and heterologous transgene sequences from a variety of species.

Applicants have identified that increased expression of the enzyme fructokinase (FRK) is directly involved in the increase of the plant's growth rate, biomass and cell wall content. This aspect of the invention is exemplified herein by the overexpression of FRK in several species, including tomato, and Eucalyptus, which have been expressed as recombinant FRKs and confirmed as having FRK activity.

The invention further provides transgenic plants which express both a nucleic acid that encodes for FRK (FRK transgene) and a nucleic acid that encodes for sucrose synthase, SuSy (SuSy transgene). The expression of these two transgenes in such “double-transgene” plants results in a growth enhancing effect, as these plants exhibit. Methods for the generation of such growth-enhanced transgenic plants are provided.

By preferentially increasing the concentration of phosphorylated sugar (i.e., in xylem tissues), the transgenic plants of the invention are capable of producing higher overall yields over shorter periods of time, and therefore may provide agricultural industries with enhanced productivity across a wide range of crops. The enhanced growth characteristics of the transgenic plants of the invention is achieved essentially by introducing additional FRK and SuSy capacity into the plant.

In one embodiment, the invention provides a transgenic plant comprising a nucleic acid that encodes for FRK and a nucleic acid that encodes for SuSy, wherein each of said nucleic acids are operably linked to a plant promoter. In a specific embodiment, the FRK is a FRK1. In another specific embodiment, the first nucleic acid (FRK transgene) encodes a polypeptide having an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of (a) SEQ ID NO: 2; SEQ ID NO: 4; SEQ ID NO: 3, and (b) an amino acid sequence that is at least 40% identical to any one of SEQ ID NO: 2; SEQ ID NO: 4; SEQ ID NO: 3 and has FRK activity. In yet another specific embodiment, the second nucleic acid (SuSy transgene) encodes a polypeptide having an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of (a) SEQ ID NO: 5, SEQ ID NO: 1, SEQ ID NO: 17, SEQ ID NO: 6, SEQ ID NO: 7, and SEQ ID NO: 8 and (b) an amino acid sequence that is at least 40% identical to SEQ ID NO: 5, SEQ ID NO: I, SEQ ID NO: 17, SEQ ID NO: 6, SEQ ID NO: 7, and SEQ ID NO: 8. In some embodiments, the FRK and SuSy transgenes are incorporated into the genome of the plant. The transgenic plant of the invention may be a monocotyledonous or a dicotyledonous plant. The transgenic plant of the invention may be a tree.

The scope of the invention also includes progeny of any generation of the transgenic plants of the invention, wherein said progeny comprises a nucleic acid that encodes for FRK (FRK transgene) and a nucleic acid that encodes for SuSy (SuSy transgene), as well as a seed of any generation of the transgenic plants of the invention, wherein said seed comprises said. FRK transgene and said SuSy transgene. The transgenic plants of the invention may display one or more enhanced growth characteristics rate when compared to an analogous wild-type or untransformed plant, including without limitation increased growth rate, biomass yield, cell wall content, and may also display increased levels of FRK and/or SuSy activity, and/or increased levels of phosphorylated fructose.

Methods for producing the transgenic plants of the invention and seeds thereof are also provided, including methods for producing a plant having enhanced growth properties, increased biomass yield and increased cell wall content.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated herein and form a part of the specification, illustrate non-limiting embodiments of the present invention, and together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the invention.

In the Figures:

FIG. 1 shows FRK1 & 2 and SuSy vectors used for transformation.

FIG. 2 shows Fructokinase activity assay scheme.

FIG. 3 shows FR1(2 phosphorylation activity in wild-type and different transgenic eucalyptus lines.

FIGS. 4A and 4B show micrographs of cross sections of Eucalyptus stem stained with safranin fast-green.

FIGS. 4C and 4D show the ratio between the xylem area and the total stem area.

FIG. 5A shows FRK2 activity in wild-type (control), sense-FRK2 plants and antisense-FRK2 plants.

FIG. 5B shows percentages of cell wall constituents in wild-type (control), sense-FRK2 plants (sense) and antisense-FRK2 plants (antisense).

FIG. 6 shows the increased percentage of cell wall content in 35S::FRK2 Eucalyptus stem compare to the control plants.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Unless otherwise defined, all terms of art, notations and other scientific terminology used herein are intended to have the meanings commonly understood by those of skill in the art to which this invention pertains. In some cases, terms with commonly understood meanings are defined herein for clarity and/or for ready reference, and the inclusion of such definitions herein should not necessarily be construed to represent a substantial difference over what is generally understood in the art. The techniques and procedures described or referenced herein are generally well understood and commonly employed using conventional methodology by those skilled in the art, such as, for example, the widely utilized molecular cloning methodologies described in Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual 3rd. edition (2001) Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.; Current Protocols in Molecular Biology (Ausbel et al., eds., John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2001; Transgenic Plants: Methods and Protocols (Leandro Penak, ed., Humana Press, 1.sup.st edition, 2004); and, Agrobacterium Protocols (Wan, ed., Humana Press, 2.sup_nd edition, 2006). As appropriate, procedures involving the use of commercially available kits and reagents are generally carried out in accordance with manufacturer defined protocols and/or parameters unless otherwise noted.

The terms “FRK polynucleotide” and “FRK nucleic acid” and “nucleic acid that encodes for FRK” are used interchangeably herein, and refer to a full length or partial length polynucleotide sequence of a gene which encodes a fructokinase protein involved in catalyzing the phosphorylation of fructose, and includes polynucleotides containing both translated (coding) and un-translated sequences, as well as the complements thereof. The term “FRK coding sequence” refers to the part of the gene which is transcribed and encodes a FRK protein. A “FRK transgene” is a nucleic acid molecule comprising a FRK polynucleotide which is exogenous to transgenic plant, plant embryo or progeny, organ or seed, harboring the nucleic acid molecule, or which is exogenous to an ancestor plant, plant embryo or progeny, organ or seed thereof, of a transgenic plant harboring the FRK polynucleotide.

The terms “SuSy polynucleotide” and “SuSy nucleic acid” and “nucleic acid that encodes for SuSy” are used interchangeably herein, and refer to a full length or partial length polynucleotide sequence of a gene which encodes a sucrose synthase protein, and includes polynucleotides containing both translated (coding) and un-translated sequences, as well as the complements thereof. The term “SuSy coding sequence” refers to the part of the gene which is transcribed and encodes a SuSy protein.

A “SuSy transgene” is a nucleic acid molecule comprising a SuSy polynucleotide which is exogenous to transgenic plant, or plant embryo, organ or seed, harboring the nucleic acid molecule, or which is exogenous to an ancestor plant, or plant embryo, organ or seed thereof, of a transgenic plant harboring the SuSy polynucleotide.

In employing the FRK or SuSy polynucleotides of the invention in the generation of transformed cells and transgenic plants, one of skill will recognize that the inserted polynucleotide sequence need not be identical, but may be only “substantially identical” to a sequence of the gene from which it was derived, or have the same enzymatic activity, as further defined below. The term FRK or SuSy polynucleotide specifically encompasses such substantially identical variants. Similarly, one of skill will recognize that because of codon degeneracy, a number of polynucleotide sequences will encode the same polypeptide, and all such polynucleotide sequences are meant to be included in the term FRK or SuSy polynucleotide. In addition, the term specifically includes those sequences substantially identical (determined as described below) with an FRK or SuSy polynucleotide sequence disclosed herein and that encode polypeptides that are either mutants of wild type FRK or SuSy polypeptides or retain the function of the FRK or SuSy polypeptide (e.g., resulting from conservative substitutions of amino acids in a FRK SuSy polypeptide). The term “FRK or SuSy polynucleotide” therefore also includes such substantially identical variants.

The term “heterologous” when used with reference to portions of a nucleic acid indicates that the nucleic acid comprises two or more subsequences that are not found in the same relationship to each other in nature. For instance, a nucleic acid is typically recombinantly produced, having two or more sequences from unrelated genes arranged to make a new functional nucleic acid, e.g., a nucleic acid encoding a protein from one source and a nucleic acid encoding a peptide sequence from another source. “Overexpression” of either FRK or SuSy is any mRNA expression which is higher than the regular expression level of the corresponding endogenous native genes. “Higher” may by any percentage, so far the increase is statistically significant

The term “functional variant” of a certain FRK protein is a protein having an amino acid sequence with less than 100% sequence identity to that certain FRK protein and that exhibits a fructose phosphorylation activity.

The term “functional variant” of a certain SuSy protein is a protein having an amino acid sequence with less than 100% sequence identity to that certain SuSy protein and that exhibits independent cleavage of sucrose into UDP-glucose and fructose.

“FRK increased activity” of a transformed plant means that fructose phosphorylation activity per protein unit extracted from the transformed plant is higher than that of the control non-transformed plant. “Higher” may by any percentage, so far the increase is statistically significant.

“SuSy increased activity” of a transformed plant means that cleavage of sucrose by SuSy per protein unit extracted from the transformed plant is higher than that of the control non-transformed plant. “Higher” may by any percentage, so far the increase is statistically significant.

The terms “identical” or percent “identity,” in the context of two or more nucleic acids or polypeptide sequences, refer to two or more sequences or subsequences that are the same or have a specified percentage of amino acid residues or nucleotides that are the same (i.e., about 40% identity, preferably 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, or 95% identity over a specified region, when compared and aligned for maximum correspondence over a comparison window, or designated region as measured using a sequence comparison algorithms, or by manual alignment and visual inspection. This definition also refers to the complement of a test sequence, which has substantial sequence or subsequence complementarity when the test sequence has substantial identity to a reference sequence. This definition also refers to the complement of a test sequence, which has substantial sequence or subsequence complementarity when the test sequence has substantial identity to a reference sequence.

It is of importance to note that FRKs from different plants may have less than 50% identity and still have a FRK activity.

When percentage of sequence identity is used in reference to polypeptides, it is recognized that residue positions that are not identical often differ by conservative amino acid substitutions, where amino acids residues are substituted for other amino acid residues with similar chemical properties (e.g., charge or hydrophobicity) and therefore do not change the functional properties of the polypeptide. Where sequences differ in conservative substitutions, the percent sequence identity may be adjusted upwards to correct for the conservative nature of the substitution.

For sequence comparison, typically one sequence acts as a reference sequence, to which test sequences are compared. When using a sequence comparison algorithm, test and reference sequences are entered into a computer, subsequence coordinates are designated, if necessary, and sequence algorithm program parameters are designated. Default program parameters can be used, or alternative parameters can be designated. The sequence comparison algorithm then calculates the percent sequence identities for the test sequences relative to the reference sequence, based on the program parameters.

A “comparison window”, as used herein, includes reference to a segment of any one of the number of contiguous positions selected from the group consisting of from 20 to 600, usually about 50 to about 200, more usually about 100 to about 150 in which a sequence may be compared to a reference sequence of the same number of contiguous positions after the two sequences are optimally aligned. Methods of alignment of sequences for comparison are well-known in the art. Optimal alignment of sequences for comparison can be conducted, e.g., by the local homology algorithm of Smith & Waterman, 1981, Adv. Appl. Math. 2:482, by the homology alignment algorithm of Needleman & Wunsch, 1970, J. Mol. Biol. 48:443, by the search for similarity method of Pearson & Lipman, 1988, Proc. Nat'l. Acad. Sci. USA 85:2444, by computerized implementations of these algorithms (GAP, BESTFIT, FASTA, and TFASTA in the Wisconsin Genetics Software Package, Genetics Computer Group, 575 Science Dr., Madison, Wis.), or by manual alignment and visual inspection (see, e.g, Current Protocols in Molecular Biology (Ausubel et al., eds. 1995 supplement)).

A preferred example of algorithm that is suitable for determining percent sequence identity and sequence similarity are the BLAST and BLAST 2.0 algorithms, which are described in Altschul et al., 1977, Nuc. Acids Res. 25:3389-3402 and Altschul et al., 1990, J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-410, respectively. BLAST and BLAST 2.0 are used, typically with the default parameters described herein, to determine percent sequence identity for the nucleic acids and proteins of the invention. Software for performing BLAST analyses is publicly available through the National Center for Biotechnology Information. This algorithm involves first identifying high scoring sequence pairs (HSPs) by identifying short words of length W in the query sequence, which either match or satisfy some positive-valued threshold score T when aligned with a word of the same length in a database sequence. T is referred to as the neighborhood word score threshold (Altschul et al., supra). These initial neighborhood word hits act as seeds for initiating searches to find longer HSPs containing them. The word hits are extended in both directions along each sequence for as far as the cumulative alignment score can be increased. Cumulative scores are calculated using, for nucleotide sequences, the parameters M (reward score for a pair of matching residues; always >0) and N (penalty score for mismatching residues; always <0). For amino acid sequences, a scoring matrix is used to calculate the cumulative score. Extension of the word hits in each direction are halted when: the cumulative alignment score falls off by the quantity X from its maximum achieved value; the cumulative score goes to zero or below, due to the accumulation of one or more negative-scoring residue alignments; or the end of either sequence is reached. The BLAST algorithm parameters W, T, and X determine the sensitivity and speed of the alignment. The BLASTN program (for nucleotide sequences) uses as defaults a word length (W) of 11, an expectation (E) of 10, M=5, N=−4 and a comparison of both strands. For amino acid sequences, the BLASTP program uses as defaults a word length of 3, and expectation (E) of 10, and the BLOSUM62 scoring matrix (see Henikoff & Henikoff, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:10915 (1989)) alignments (B) of 50, expectation (E) of 10, M=5, N=−4, and a comparison of both strands.

Genomic DNA or cDNA comprising FRK polynucleotides may be identified in standard Southern blots under stringent conditions using the FRK polynucleotide sequences disclosed here. For this purpose, suitable stringent conditions for such hybridizations are those which include a hybridization in a buffer of 40% formarnide, 1M NaCl, 1% SDS at 37° C., and at least one wash in 0.2×SSC at a temperature of at least about 50° C., usually about 55° C. to about 60° C., for 20 minutes, or equivalent conditions_(—) A positive hybridization is at least twice background. Those of ordinary skill will readily recognize that alternative hybridization and wash conditions may be utilized to provide conditions of similar stringency.

Applicants have demonstrated that over-expression of the fructokinase gene in a transformed heterologous plant results in enhanced fructose phosphorylation rates and increased growth characteristics. Over-expression of a transgene comprising the FRK coding sequence in transgenic Eucalyptus plants also results in increased fructose phosphorylation. These transgenic plants also grow faster than wild-type plants. Similarly, in preliminary studies conducted with tomato plants (see Example 4), tomato plants transformed with the potato FRK transgene showed significant enhancement of growth rate, flowering, and seed yield in relation to wild type control plants.

The invention also provides methods of generating a transgenic plant having enhanced growth and other agronomic characteristics. In one embodiment, a method of generating a transgenic plant having enhanced cell wall content and other agronomic characteristics comprises introducing into a plant cell an expression cassette comprising a nucleic acid molecule encoding a FRK transgene, under the control of a suitable promoter capable of driving the expression of the transgene, so as to yield a transformed plant cell, and obtaining a transgenic plant which expresses the encoded FRK. In another embodiment, a method of generating a transgenic plant having enhanced growth and other agronomic characteristics comprises introducing into a plant cell one or more nucleic acid constructs or expression cassettes comprising nucleic acid molecules encoding a FRK transgene and a SuSy transgene, under the control of one or more suitable promoters (and, optionally, other regulatory elements) capable of driving the expression of the transgenes, so as to yield a plant cell transformed thereby, and obtaining a transgenic plant which expresses the FRK and SuSy transgenes.

Transgene Constructs/Expression Vectors

In order to generate the transgenic plants of the invention, the gene coding sequence for the desired transgene(s) must be incorporated into a nucleic acid construct (also interchangeably referred to herein as a/an (transgene) expression vector, expression cassette, expression construct or expressible genetic construct), which can direct the expression of the transgene sequence in transformed plant cells. Such nucleic acid constructs carrying the transgene(s) of interest may be introduced into a plant cell or cells using a number of methods known in the art, including but not limited to Agrobacterium mediated transformation, electroporation, DNA bombardment or biolistic approaches, microinjection, and via the use of various DNA-based vectors such as Agrobacterium tumefaciens and Agrobacterium rhizogenes or other binary vectors vectors. Once introduced into the transformed plant cell, the nucleic acid construct may direct the expression of the incorporated transgene(s) (i.e., FRK), either in a transient or stable fashion. Stable expression is preferred, and is achieved by utilizing plant transformation vectors which are able to direct the chromosomal integration of the transgene construct. Once a plant cell has been successfully transformed, it may be cultivated to regenerate a transgenic plant.

A large number of expression vectors suitable for driving the constitutive or induced expression of inserted genes in transformed plants are known. In addition, various transient expression vectors and systems are known. To a large extent, appropriate expression vectors are selected for use in a particular method of gene transformation. Broadly speaking, a typical plant expression vector for generating transgenic plants will comprise the transgene of interest under the expression regulatory control of a promoter, a selectable marker for assisting in the selection of transformants, and a transcriptional terminator sequence.

More specifically, the basic elements of a nucleic acid construct for use in generating the transgenic plants of the invention are: a suitable promoter capable of directing the functional expression of the transgene(s) in a transformed plant cell, the transgene (s) (i.e., FRK coding sequence) operably linked to the promoter, preferably a suitable transcription termination sequence (i.e., nopaline synthetic enzyme gene terminator) operably linked to the transgene, and sometimes other elements useful for controlling the expression of the transgene, as well as one or more selectable marker genes suitable for selecting the desired transgenic product (i.e., antibiotic resistance genes).

As Agrobacterium tumefaciens is the primary transformation system used to generate transgenic plants, there are numerous vectors designed for Agrobacterium transformation. For stable transformation, Agrobacterium systems utilize “binary” vectors that permit plasmid manipulation in both E. coli and Agrobacterium, and typically contain one or more selectable markers to recover transformed plants (Hellens et al, 2000, Technical focus: A guide to Agrobacterium binary Ti vectors. Trends Plant Sci 5:446-451). Binary vectors for use in Agrobacterium transformation systems typically comprise the borders of T-DNA, multiple cloning sites, replication functions for Escherichia coli and A. tumefaciens, and selectable marker and reporter genes.

Transcription Terminators

In preferred embodiments, a 3′ transcription termination sequence is incorporated downstream of the transgene in order to direct the termination of transcription and permit correct polyadenylation of the mRNA transcript. Suitable transcription terminators are those which are known to function in plants, including without limitation, the nopaline synthase (NOS) and octopine synthase (OCS) genes of Agrobacterium tumefaciens, the T7 transcript from the octopine synthase gene, the 3′ end of the protease inhibitor I or II genes from potato or tomato, the CaMV 35S terminator, the tml terminator and the pea rbcS E9 terminator. In addition, a gene's native transcription terminator may be used.

Selectable Markers

Selectable markers are typically included in transgene expression vectors in order to provide a means for selecting transformants. While various types of markers are available, various negative selection markers are typically utilized, including those which confer resistance to a selection agent that inhibits or kills untransformed cells, such as genes which impart resistance to an antibiotic (such as kanamycin, gentamycin, anamycin, hygromycin and hygrornycinB) or resistance to a herbicide (such as sulfonylurea, gulfosinate, phosphinothricin and glyphosate): Screenable markers include, for example, genes encoding .beta.-glucuronidase (Jefferson, 1987, Plant Mol. Biol. Rep 5: 387-405), genes encoding luciferase (Ow et at, 1986, Science 234: 856-859) and various genes encoding proteins involved in the production or control of anthocyanin pigments (See, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,573,432). The E. coli glucuronidase gene (gus, gusA or uidA.) has become a widely used selection marker in plant transgenics, largely because of the glucuronidase enzyme's stability, high sensitivity and ease of detection (e.g., fluorometric, spectrophotometric, various histochemical methods). Moreover, there is essentially no detectable glucuronidase inmost higher plant species.

Methods of regenerating individual plants from transformed plant cells, tissues or organs are known and are described for numerous plant species.

As an illustration, transformed plantlets (derived from transformed cells or tissues) are cultured in a root-permissive growth medium supplemented with the selective agent used in the transformation strategy (i.e., and antibiotic such as kanamycin). Once rooted, transfonned plantlets are then transferred to soil and allowed to grow to maturity. Upon flowering, the mature plants are preferably selfed (self-fertilized), and the resultant seeds harvested and used to grow subsequent generations.

T0 transgenic plants may be used to generate subsequent generations (e.g., T1, T2, etc.) by selfing of primary or secondary transformants, or by sexual crossing of primary or secondary transfonnants with other plants (transformed or untransformed). Reciprocal crosses were made such that each plant served as the male in a set of crosses and each plant served as the female in a second set of crosses. During the mature plant growth stage, the plants are typically examined for growth phenotype, etc. (see following subsection).

Selection of Growth-Enhanced Transgenic Plants

Transgenic plants may be selected, screened and characterized using standard Methodologies. The preferred transgenic plants of the invention will exhibit one or more phenotypic characteristics indicative of enhanced growth and/or other desirable agronomic properties. Transgenic plants are typically regenerated under selective pressure in order to select transformants prior to creating subsequent transgenic plant generations. In addition, the selective pressure used may be employed beyond TO generations in order to ensure the presence of the desired transgene expression construct or cassette.

T0 transformed plant cells, calli, tissues or plants may be identified and isolated by selecting or screening for the genetic composition of and/or the phenotypic characteristics encoded by marker genes contained in the transgene expression construct used for the transformation. For example, selection may be conducted by growing potentially-transformed plants, tissues or cells in a growth medium containing a repressive amount of antibiotic or herbicide to which the transforming genetic construct can impart resistance. Further, the transformed plant cells, tissues and plants can be identified by screening for the activity of marker genes (Le., .beta.-glucuronidase) which may be present in the transgene expression construct.

Various physical and biochemical methods may be employed for identifying plants containing the desired transgene expression construct, as is well known. Examples of such methods include Southern blot analysis or various nucleic acid amplification methods (i.e., PCR) for identifying the transgene, transgene expression construct or elements thereof, Northern blotting, S1 RNase protection, reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) amplification for detecting and determining the RNA transcription products, and protein gel electrophoresis, Western blotting, immunoprecipitation, enzyme immunoassay, enzyme activity and the like may be used for identifying the protein encoded and expressed by the transgene.

It is also noted that FRK and SySy enzymatic activity tests are of the routine work of the person skilled in the art. Such tests may be applied in any arbitrary plant in order to examine whether this plant expresses a native FRK or SuSy.

In another approach, expression levels of genes, proteins and/or metabolic compounds that are known to be modulated by transgene expression in the target plant may be used to identify transformants. In one embodiment of the present invention, increased levels of the phosphorylated fructose may be used to screen for desirable transformants, as exemplified in the Examples. Similarly, increased levels of FRK (fructose phosphorylation) and/or SuSy (UDP dependent sucrose cleavage) activity may be assayed, as exemplified in the Examples.

Promoters for Cloning and Transformation of Fructokinase 1& 2 (FRK1 & FRK2) and Alternatively with Sucrose Synthase (SuSy) into Plants

Overexpression of FRK1 (Seq ID. #2) and FRK2 (Seq IDs. #3 & 4) may be made alone or together with SuSy (Seq ID. #1) or with any of the four SuSy genes (SUS1-4 Seq IDs #5-8) isolated by the inventors (Goren et al., 2011), or with any other FRK and SuSy gene. Expression patterns can include limiting the expression of these genes to specific developmental stages such as secondary cell wall development or specific tissues such as xylem and vascular or cambium tissues alone or to overexpression of these genes constitutively in all plant parts. Expression of a gene at a specific developmental stage can be done by developmentally specific promoters. Developmental promoters, for example promoters that are expressed only during secondary wall-thickening and xylem tissue development, are CesA7 promoter (Bosca et al. 2006) (Seq ID #9), PAL2 promoter (Hatton et al. 1995) (Seq ID #10), 4CL-1 promoter (Hauffe et aL 1991) (Seq ID #11), FRA8 promoter (Zhong et al. 2005) (Seq ID #12) and DOT1 promoter (Petricka et al. 2008) (Seq ID #13).

To achieve expression at the xylem developmental stage the nucleic acid encoding a SuSy protein and nucleic acid encoding a FRK1 or other FRK protein were fused to the PAL2 promoter and 4CL-1, respectively, to enable developmental stage controlled co-expression of these two proteins in the plant. Alternatively, constitutive overexpression of SuSy and FRK1 is achieved by fusion of the genes to SvBv promoter (Seq ID #14) and CaMV 35S promoter (Seq ID #15), respectively. Alternatively, the expression of FRK or FRK alone or SuSy alone or both is achieved by control under the constitutive promoter CaMV 35S.

The choice of promoter(s) that can be used depends upon several factors, including, but not limited to, efficiency, selectability, inducibility, desired expression level, and/or preferential cell or tissue expression. It is a routine matter for one of skill in the art to modulate the expression of a sequence by appropriately selecting and positioning promoters and other regulatory regions relative to that sequence. Examples of promoters that can be used are known in the art. Some suitable promoters initiate transcription only, or predominantly, in certain cell types. Methods for identifying and characterizing promoter regions in plant genomic DNA include, for example, those described in Jordano, et al., Plant Cell 1:855-866, 1989; Bustos, et al., Plant Cell 1:839-854, 1989; Green, et al., EMBO J. 7:4035-4044, 1988; Meier et al., Plant Cell 3:309-316, 1991; and Zhang et al., Plant Physiology 110: 1069-1079, 1996.

Promoters that can be used include those present in plant genomes, as well as promoters from other sources. Exemplary promotes include nopaline synthase (NOS) and octopine synthase (OCS) promoters carried on tumor-inducing plasmids of Agrobacterium turnefaciens and CaMV35S promoters from the cauliflower mosaic virus, see, e.g., the promoters described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,164,316 and 5,322,938 (incorporated herein by reference). Non-limiting exemplary promoters derived from plant genes are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,641,876, which describes a rice actin promoter, U.S. Pat. No. 7,151,204, which describes a maize chloroplast aldolase promoter and a maize aldolase (FDA) promoter, and U.S. Patent Application Publication. No. 2003/0131377, which describes a maize nicotianamine synthase promoter (each of which is incorporated herein by reference).

Additional examples of promoters that can be used include ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase (RbcS) promoters, such as the RbcS promoter from Eastern larch (Larix laricina), the pine cab6 promoter (Yamamoto et al., Plant Cell Physiol. 35:773-778, 1994), the Cab-1 gene promoter from wheat (Fejes et al., Plant Mol. Biol. 15:921-932, 1990), the CAB-1 promoter from spinach (Lubberstedt et al., Plant Physiol. 104:997-1006, 1994), the cab1R promoter from rice (Luan et al., Plant Cell 4:971-981, 1992), the pyruvate orthophosphate dikinase (PPDK) promoter from maize (Matsuoka et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 90:9586-9590, 1993), the tobacco Lhcb1*2 promoter (Cerdan et al., Plant Mol. Biol. 33:245-255, 1997), the Arabidopsis thaliana SUC2 sucrose-H⁺ symporter promoter (Truemit et al., Planta 196:564-570, 1995), and thylakoid membrane protein promoters from spinach (psaD, psaF, psaE, PC, FNR, atpC, atpD, cab, and rbcS). Additional exemplary promoters that can be used to drive gene transcription in stems, leafs, and green tissue are described in U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2007/0006346, herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. Additional promoters that result in preferential expression in plant green tissues include those from genes such as Arabidopsis thaliana ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase (Rubisco) small subunit (Fischhoff et al., Plant Mol. Biol. 20:81-93, 1992), aldolase and pyruvate orthophosphate dikinase (PPDK) (Taniguchi et al., Plant Cell Physiol. 41(1):42-48, 2000).

In some embodiments, the promoters may be altered to contain one or more enhancers to assist in elevating gene expression. Examples of enhancers that can be used to promote gene expression are known in the art. Enhancers are often are found 5′ to the start of transcription in a promoter that functions in eukaryotic cells, but can often be inserted upstream (5′) or downstream (3′) to the coding sequence. In some instances, these 5′ enhancing elements are introns. Non-limiting examples of enhancers include the 5′ introns of the rice actin 1 and rice actin 2 genes (see, U.S. Pat. No. 5,641,876), the maize alcohol dehydrogenase gene intron, the maize heat shock protein 70 gene intron (U.S. Pat. No. 5,593,874), and the maize shrunken 1 gene intron.

In some embodiments, the DNA construct or vector can also contain a non-translated leader sequence derived from a virus. Non-limiting examples of non-translated leader sequences that can promote transcription include those from Tobacco Mosaic Virus (TMV, the “W-sequence”), Maize Chlorotic Mottle Virus (MCMV), and Alfalfa Mosaic Virus (AMV) (see, e.g. Gallie et al., Nucl. Acids Res. 15: 8693-8711, 1987; Skuzeski et al., Plant Mol. Biol. 15: 65-79, 1.990). Additional exemplary leader sequences include: picomavirus leaders, for example, EMCV leader (Encephalomyocarditis 5′ noncoding region) (Elroy-Stein et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 86:6126-6130, 1989); potyvirus leaders, for example, TEV leader (Tobacco Etch Virus); MDMV leader (Maize Dwarf Mosaic Virus); human immunoglobulin heavy-chain binding protein (Bis') leader (Macejak et al., Nature 353: 90-94, 1991; untranslated leader from the coat protein mRNA of alfalfa mosaic virus (AMV RNA 4) (Jobling et al., Nature 325:622-625, 1987); tobacco mosaic virus leader (TMV) (Gallie et al., Mol. Biol. RNA, pages 237-256, 1989); and Maize Chlorotic Mottle Virus leader (MCMV) (Lommel et al., Virology 81:382-385, 1991). See also, Della-Cioppa et al., Plant Physiology 84:965-968, 1987.

In some embodiments, the DNA constructs or vectors can also contain a 3′ element that may contain a polyadenylation signal and/or site. Well-known 3′ elements include those from Agrobacterium tumefaciens genes, such as nos 3′, tm1 3′, tmr 3′, tins 3′, ocs 3′, tr7 3′, see, e.g., the 3′ elements described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,090,627, incorporated herein by reference. The 3′ elements can also be derived from plant genes, e.g., the 3′ elements from a wheat (Triticum aesevitum) heat shock protein 17 (Hsp17 3′), a wheat ubiquitin gene, a wheat fructose-1,6-biphosphatase gene, a rice glutelin gene, a rice lactate dehydrogenase gene, and a rice beta-tubulin gene, all of which are described in U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2002/0192813 (herein incorporated by reference), the pea (Pisum sativum) ribulose biphosphate carboxylase gene (rbs 3′), and the 3′ elements from the genes within the host plant. In some embodiments, the 3′ element can also contain an appropriate transcriptional terminator, such as a CAMV 35S terminator, the tm1 terminator, the nopaline synthase terminator, and the pea rbcs E9 terminator.

In some embodiments, the DNA constructs or vectors include an inducible promoter. Inducible promoters drive transcription in response to external stimuli, such as chemical agents or environmental stimuli. For example, inducible promoters can confer transcription in response to hormones, such as gibberellic acid or ethylene, or in response to light or drought. Non-limiting examples of inducible promoters are described in Guo et al., Plant J. 34:383-392, 2003, and Chen et al., Plant J 36:731-40, 2003.

Methods of Transformation

Transformation techniques for plants are well known in the art and include Agrobacterium-based techniques (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,635,055; 5,824,877; 5,591,616; 5,981,840; and 6,384,301) and techniques that do not require Agrobacterium. Non-Agrobacterium techniques involve the uptake of exogenous genetic material directly by protoplasts or cells. This can be accomplished by polyethylene glycol (PEG)- or electroporation-mediated uptake (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,384,253), particle bombardment-mediated delivery (see, e_g., U.S. Patent Nos. 5,015,580; 5,550,318; 5,538,880; 6,160,208; 6,399,861; and 6,403,865), protoplast transformation (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,508,184) or microinjection. Non-limiting examples of these techniques are described by Paszkowski et al., EMBO J 3:2717-2722, 1984; Potrykus et al., Mol. Gen. Genet. 199:169-177, 1985; Reich et al., Biotechnology 4:1001-1004, 1986; and Klein et al., Nature 327:70-73, 1987. All of which are incorporated herein by reference.

Transformation using Agrobacterium has also been described (see, e.g., WO 94/00977 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,591,616, each of which is incorporated herein by reference). In each case, the transformed cells are regenerated to whole plants using standard techniques known in the art. Many vectors are available for transformation using Agrobacteriurn tumefaciens. These vectors typically carry at least one T-DNA border sequence and include vectors such as pBIN19 (Bevan, Nucl. Acies Res. 11:369, 1984). The binary vector pCIB10 contains a gene encoding kanamycin resistance for selection in plants and T-DNA right and left border sequences and incorporates sequences from the wide host-range plasmid pRK252 allowing it to replicate in both E. coli and Agrobacterium (Rothstein et al., Gene 53:153-161, 1987). Transformation of the target plant species by recombinant Agrobacterium usually involves co-cultivation of the Agrobacterium. with explants from the plant and follows protocols well known in the art. The transformed tissue is regenerated on selectable medium carrying the antibiotic or herbicide resistance marker present between the binary plasmid T-DNA borders.

Another approach to transforming a plant cell with a gene involves propelling inert or biologically active particles at plant tissues and cells. This technique is disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,945,050; 5,036,006; and 5,100,792 (each of which is incorporated herein by reference). Generally, this procedure involves propelling inert or biologically active particles at the cells under conditions effective to penetrate the outer surface of the cell. Gordon-Kamm et al., Plant Cell 2:603-618, 1990; Fromm et al., Biotechnology 8:833-839, 1990; WO 93/07278; and Koziel et al., Biotechnology 11:194-200, 1993 describe exemplary methods of particle bombardment to achieve transformation of plant cells. Exemplary methods of transforming plastids using particle bombardment are described in Svab at al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 90:913-917, 1993; Svab et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 87:8526-8530, 1990; McBride at al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 91:7301-7305, 1994; Day et al., Plant Biotech. J. 9:540-553, 2011.

As noted above, plant cells can also be transformed using PEG or electroporation. Non-limiting examples of techniques that utilize PEG or electroporation to transform plant cells are described in EP 0292435, EP 0392225, and WO 93/07278.

Transient transformation can also be used to express a target gene in plant cell or plant. Non-limiting examples of transient transformation of plant tissues include leaf infiltration, vacuum infiltration, infection with Agrobacterium, or bombardment of target tissues with DNA-coated particles.

Plants

In some embodiments, the transgenic plant is a monocot or a dicot. Examples of monocot transgenic plants include, e.g., a meadow grass (blue grass, Poa), a forage grass (e.g., festuca and lolium), a temperate grass (e.g., Agrostis), and cereals (e.g., wheat, oats, rye, barley, rice, sorghum, and maize). Examples of dicot transgenic plants include, e.g., tobacco, legumes lupins, potato, sugar beet, pea, bean, and soybean), and cruciferous plants (family Brassicaceae) (e.g., cauliflower and rape seed). Thus, the transgenic plants provided herein include a broad range of plants, including, but not limited to, species from the genera Anacardium, Arachis, Asparagus, Atropa, Avena, Brassica, Citrus, Citrullus, Capsicum, Carthamus, Cocos, Coffea, Cucumis, Cucurbita, Daucus, Elaeis, Fragaria, Glycine, Gossypium, Helianthus, Heterocallis, Hordeum, Hyoscyamus, Lactuca, Linum, Lolium, Lupinus, Lycopersicon, Malus, Manihot, Majorana, Medicago, Nicotiana, Olea, Oryza, Panieum, Pannisetum, Persea, Phaseolus, Pistachia, Pisum, Pyrus, Prunus, Raphanus, Ricinus, Secale, Senecio, Sinapis, Solanum, Sorghum, Theobromus, Trigonella, Triticum, Vicia, Vitis, Vigna, and Zea.

In some embodiments, the transgenic plant is a tree or shrub (e.g., a eucalyptus tree or shrub). Non-limiting examples of eucalyptus include, without limitation, the following species and crosses thereof: E. botryoides, E. bridgesiana, E. camaldulensis, E. cinerea, E. globule, E.

grandis, E. gunii, E. nicholii, E. pulverulenta, E. robusta, E. rudis, E. saligna, E Tereticornis, E. Urophilla, E. viminalis, E. dunnii and a cross hybrids of any of the preceding species especially Eucalyptus grandis and Eucalyptus urophylla. Poplar species: P. deltoides, P. tremula, P. alba, P. nigra (euramericana), P. nigra (canadensis), P. tremula, P. trichocarpa, P. rouleauiana, P. balsamifera, P. maximowiczii and crosses thereof. Pine: Genus=Pinus.

Isolated Nucleic Acid Molecules

One aspect of the invention pertains to isolated nucleic acid molecules that encode FRK or SuSy proteins, as well as nucleic acid fragments sufficient for use as hybridization probes to identify FRK or SuSy -encoding nucleic acids (e.g., FRK or SuSy mRNA) and fragments for use as PCR primers for the amplification or mutation of CCP nucleic acid molecules. As used herein, the term “nucleic acid molecule” is intended to include DNA molecules (e.g., eDNA or genomic DNA) and RNA molecules (e.g., mRNA) and analogs of the DNA or RNA generated using nucleotide analogs. The nucleic acid molecule can be single-stranded or double-stranded, but preferably is double-stranded DNA.

An “isolated” nucleic acid molecule is one which is separated from other nucleic acid molecules which are present in the natural source of the nucleic acid. For example, with regards to genomic DNA, the term “isolated” includes nucleic acid molecules which are separated from the chromosome with which the genomic DNA is naturally associated. Preferably, an “isolated” nucleic acid is free of sequences which naturally flank the nucleic acid (i.e., sequences located at the 5′ and 3′ ends of the nucleic acid) in the genomic DNA of the organism from which the nucleic acid is derived. For example, in various embodiments, the isolated FRK or SuSy nucleic acid molecule can contain less than about 5 kb, 4 kb, 3 kb, 2 kb, 1 kb, 0.5 kb or 0.1 kb of nucleotide sequences which naturally flank the nucleic acid molecule in genomic DNA of the cell from which the nucleic acid is derived. Moreover, an “isolated” nucleic acid molecule, such as a eDNA molecule, can be substantially free of other cellular material, or culture medium when produced by recombinant techniques, or substantially free of chemical precursors or other chemicals when chemically synthesized.

A nucleic acid molecule of the present invention, e.g., a nucleic acid molecule encoding the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1-8 or a portion thereof, can be isolated using standard molecular biology techniques and the sequence information provided herein. For example, using all or portion of the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1-8, as a hybridization probe, FRK or SuSy nucleic acid molecules can be isolated using standard hybridization and cloning techniques (e.g., as described in Sambrook, J., Fritsh, E. F., and Maniatis, T. Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual. 2nd, ed., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1989).

Moreover, a nucleic acid encoding all or a portion of the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1-8 can be isolated by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using synthetic oligonucleotide primers designed based upon the sequence of NO: 1-8, respectively.

A nucleic acid of the invention can be amplified using cDNA, mRNA or alternatively, genomic DNA, as a template and appropriate oligonucleotide primers according to standard PCR amplification techniques. The nucleic acid so amplified can be cloned into an appropriate vector and characterized by DNA sequence analysis: Furthermore, oligonucleotides corresponding to CCP nucleotide sequences can be prepared by standard synthetic techniques, e.g., using an automated DNA synthesizer.

In still another preferred embodiment, an isolated nucleic acid molecule of the present invention comprises a nucleotide sequence which encodes a protein that is at least about. 40%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 98% or more homologous to the nucleotide sequence (e.g., to the entire length of the nucleotide sequence) that encodes the sequence NO: 1-8, or a portion of any of these nucleotide sequences.

It is well known that undue experimentation is not required for this isolation of the primers or probes. These are trivial methods that can be done for every gene in any species, once one knows the sequences of the gene and choose a reference gene, or just use ribosomal RNA (rRNA) as reference Examples for such primers used in the present invention are: CTCCGTTACATATCTGATCCTT and GACAGCATTGAAGTCACCTT for LeFRK1 (GenBank accession no. U64817), TTGTTGGTGCCCTTCTAACCA and ACGATGTTTCTATGCTCCTCCCT for LeFRK2 (GenBank accession no. U64818), and GACATTTACATGGATGAGAAGAAA and GCTGTGGCACCATCCAATATTT for LeFRK4 (GenBank accession no. AY099454). The tomato actin gene (GenBank accession no. U60482) served as a housekeeping gene for expression normalization. The primers used for actin were CACCATTGGGTCTGAGCGAT and GGGCGACAACCTTGATCTTC. The primers for LeFRK3 were GTGGTGCATTGACCGTGATG and GGTCGGATGGATATTATGCAACTG. For LeFRK3 also, the tomato actin gene (GeneBank accession no. U60482) served as a control housekeeping gene for expression normalization.

Primers for sucrose synthase are provided in Planta (2011) 233:1011-1023, incorporated herein by reference. Supplemental Table 1 in Goren et al. 2011 shows PCR, RT-PCR and sequencing primers of SlSUS1, SlSUS3 and SlSUS4.

Activity Assay of Fructokinase

The activity of fructokinase activity is based on the hexose kinase (hexose phosphorylation) assay as described by (Schaffer and Petreikov 1997b). fructokinase activity was measured by an enzyme-linked assay which is based on phosphorylation of fructose (Fru) by fructokinase to get fructose-6-phosphate (Fru-6-P). Fru-6-P is than converted to Glucose-6-phosphate (Glc-6-P) by phosphoglucoisomerase (PGI). Glc-6-P is oxidized to 6-phospho-D-gluconate (PGA) with NAD dependent Glc-6-P dehydrogenase (G6PDH) by reduction of NAD⁺ to NADH which is continuously monitored by reading at 340 nm (FIG. 2).

Activity Assay for Sucrose Synthase (SuSy)

Activity of disaccharide-cleaving enzymes is assayed in vitro at physiological pH levels in the cleavage direction. Crude protein extract (100 μl) from each sample was added to 400 μl of reaction buffer (0.2M Suc or Tre, 60 mM citrate/phosphate buffer at pH=5 or pH=7) in three independent tubes: one at pH 5, one at pH 7 and a third at pH 7 with 25 μl of 100 mM UDP added. Reaction tubes are incubated at 37° C. for 1 h, then Sumner reagent is added and tubes were incubated at 100° C. for 5 min. A fourth control tube for each sample has crude extract added after Sumner reagent. Reducing monosaccharide in the tubes is assayed by absorption at 550 nm, with the control tube serving as blank for each sample. Acidic invertase activity is calculated from the pH=5 tube, basic invertase from the pH=7 tube, and SuSy activity from the difference between the UDP tube and the pH=7 tube. Activity is normalized to protein amount in each sample.

It is noted that another SuSy enzyme activity, assayed for sucrose cleavage half reaction is based on (Chourey 1981). Protein extracted from plant leaves by the addition of a small portion of SiO2 grains to 0.5 g leaf and grind with a mortal and a pestle with the addition of 1.5 ml of extraction buffer (50 mM HEPES-KOH pH 7.5, 10 mM MgCl2, 1 mM EDTA, 2 mM DTT, 0.1% v/v Triton X-100, 10% v/v glycerol and protease inhibitor). The samples are centrifuged at 15,000 g for 20 min.

Wood Density Measurements

Determination of the basic density of wood chips was according to the standard TAPPI method (Grundelius 1990).

Basic density is defined as the ratiobetween the oven-dry mass of a woodsample and its green volume.

D=M/V

Where:

-   D=basic density, kg/m³. -   M=oven dry mass, kg. -   V=green volume of a wood sample in equilibrium with surrounding     water, m³.     Chips are cut from the bottom of the tree and soaked in water for 72     hours. The green volume of the chips was deteimined twice, after     they were drained and then after they were carefully wiped off by     dipping the chips in water bath that was placed on a balance.

V=(C−B)/e

Whereas:

-   V=green volume of a wood sample in equilibrium with surrounding     water, m³. -   C=mass of wood chips and sample basket when immersed in water, g. -   B=mass of empty sample basket when immersed in water, g. -   e=density of water surrounding sample basket, g/cm3.     Following determination of the green volume, chips were dried at     105° C. till constant weight.     Basic density was calculated.

Fiber and Vessel Characterization

Samples of wild type and transgenic lines were analyzed for the following characteristics:

-   -   Fiber length     -   Fiber width     -   Diameter of fiber lumen     -   Wall thickness     -   Vessel length     -   Vessel diameter     -   Vessel area

Wood chips were macerated in hot acetic acid/ nitric acid solution (5:1) for 6 hours. After maceration, the samples were thoroughly washed in water and hydrated fibrous material, for at least 24 hours, then subjected to agitation for complete fiber separation. 100 fibers and 100 vessels were measured for each wood sample with video microscope and analyzed with image analyzer.

Cell Wall Composition

The classic ‘wet’ method for analysis of cell wall constituents is taught by K., G. H., and J., V.-S. P. (1970). Forage Fiber analyses. USDA Agricultural Handbook No. 379. Washington, DC: USDA; and AOAC. 1990. Official Methods of Analysis. 15th ed. Assoc. Off Anal. Chem., Arlington, Va. Specifically, examples of ‘wet’ methods are:

Crude Fiber—AOAC 978.10—this method measures only cellulose and some lignin; ADF-AOAC 973.18—ADF measures cellulose and ALL the lignin and NDF—AOAC 2002.04. NDF is the more complete measure of total fiber since it measures ALL the cellulose, lignin & hemicelluloses.

EXAMPLES

In order to illustrate the invention, the following examples are included. However, it is to be understood that these examples do not limit the invention and are only meant to suggest a method of practicing the invention.

In order to implement some of the embodiments of the invention, five transformation vectors were constructed and are illustrated in FIG. 1:

-   Vector #1—CaMV 35S promoter::FRK1. -   Vector #2—CaMV 355 promoter::FRK2. -   Vector #3 CaMV 355 promoter::FRK2 (potato). -   Vector #4—CaMV 35S promoter::FRK1_SvBv promoter::SuSy. -   Vector #5 4CL-1 promoter::FRK1_PAL2 promoter::SuSy.

Example 1

Increased Growth in FRK-Transformed Eucalyptus

A vector designated as Vector 2 illustrated in FIG. 1 was cloned into a plasmid pBI121 (GenBank: AF485783.1) under the CaMV 35S promoter and with the NOS terminator. Transgenic Eucalyptus plants are designed to express the exogenous potato FRK2 protein (accession number: Z12823; SEQ ID NO. 4). Agrobacterium EAH105 was electrotransformed, selected for 48 hours on kanamycin plates (100 μg/ml), and used for plant transformation. Eucalyptus transformation using a protocol essentially as described in Prakash et al., In Vitro Cell Dev Biot.-Plant 45:429-434, 2009. Briefly, shoots of Eucalyptus were propagated in vitro on Murashige and Skoog (MS) basal salt medium consisting of 3% (w/v) sucrose and 0.8% (w/v) agar.

Plant Growth and Physiological Measurements

Homozygous and heterozygous transgenic and wild type plants were grown in the greenhouse for six months. The canopy height and caliber were monthly measured. The height was determined by measuring the length of the stem of each transgenic plant from the root crown to the top. Dry weight was measured at the end of the experiment.

Plant Protein Extraction

Eucalyptus leaves (1 gr) were ground in liquid nitrogen and were homogenized with 4 ml extraction buffer (3 mM DIECA, 1% (w/v) PVPP, 2.5 mM DTT, and 1 mM PMSF at pH 7.6). The mixture was incubated on ice for 60 min and then centrifuged for 30 min at 13,000×g at 4° C. The supernatant was brought to 80% ammonium sulfate saturation and incubated on ice for 15 min. After centrifugation at 12,000×g (4° C.), the pellet was resuspended in 0.5 ml washing buffer (50 mM HEPES, 1 mM EDTA, 1 mM DTT, pH 7.5), desalted on a G-25 fine Sephadex column (55 mm×11 mm), and used as a crude protein extract for subsequent enzymatic analyses.

Gene Expression Analysis

Genomic DNA that was extracted from independent transgenic plants was analyzed by PCR for the presence of FRK2. Positive independent T0 plants were analyzed for FRK2 expression levels. Total RNA was isolated from 200 mg fresh leaves by the EZ-RNA kit (Biological Industries Co., Beit Haemek, Israel) according to the manufacturer's instructions. The RNA was treated with RNase-free DNase and first strand cDNA synthesis was carried out by reverse transcription reaction. FRK2 mRNA levels were analyzed by Real Time PCR using primers FRK2-F (5′-TTGTTGGTGCCCTTCTAACCA-3′) and FRK2-R (5′-ACGATGTTTCTATGCTCCTCCCT-3′). FRK2 gene expression was normalized to the internal control gene histone H4 (AY263810) using primers P91 5′-GAAGCGGCACAGAAAGGTCC-3′ and P92 5′-CCGAAGCCATACAGGGTCCT 3′.

Activity assay of FRK in Eucalyptus

Fructokinase activity is measured by spectrophotometer with protein extracts using an enzyme linked assay. PGI enzyme converts F6P to glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) and G6P-dehydrogenase enzyme transfers hydrogen from G6P to NAD, converting it to NADH. The spectrophotometer reads the amount of NADH. The assay was conducted in 0.5 ml reaction mixture that contained 100 μl of crude protein extract, 30 mM HEPES (pH 7.6), 9 mM KCl, 1 M MgCl2, 1 mM ATP, 1 mM NAD, 0.5 unit PGI (type III), 0.5 unit NAD-dependent G-6-P DH. The reaction was initiated after the addition of 1 or 10 mM fructose. Enzyme activity (mg/ml ) was examined at 37° C. and A340 nm was monitored continuously (Petreikov and Schaffer, 1997a).

As described above, the 35S::FRK2 construct was introduced into Eucalyptus tree by Agrobacterium mediated transformation and total of 14 transformed lines were obtained. In order to evaluate the activity of the transgene, the inventors analyzed FRK2 protein by extracting protein from fresh tissue and measuring activity. Line 10 showed the highest FRK2 activity, followed by 13A, 7A and 5A as expected with plant transformation experiments in which positioning effects, copy number, and other factors routinely provide varied results (FIG. 3). FIG. 3 shows FRK2 phosphorylation activity. Activity was measured in crude protein extracts of wild-type and different transgenic eucalyptus lines, with 10 mM fructose. Control, wild-type. Line 10A shows the strongest activity.

Overexpression of FRK2 in Eucalyptus increases Xylem Relative Area in the Stem

The effect of 35S::FRK2 on vasculature development was analyzed by calculating the relative xylem area in cross sections that were taken from mature and young eucalyptus stems. While lines 15A and 19A showed relative xylem area similar to wild type in both mature and young stems, line 10A showed significantly higher ratio in mature stem relative to wild type (FIG. 4). Thus, 35S::FRK2 expression facilitates xylem formation.

FIG. 4 shows the effect of 35S::FRK2 on Eucalyptus vasculature. In A and B, Micrographs of cross sections of Eucalyptus stem stained with safranin fast-green. The outer and inner xylem borders are marked in red and possess the xylem (yellow double arrow). While the outer border indicates the cambium fraction, the inner xylem borders encompasses the pith (p). The ratio between the xylem and the total stem area is higher in 35S::FRK2 stem (B) relative to wild type (A). In C and D, The ratio between the xylem area and the total stem area, in mature (C) and young (D) stems, was calculated for cross sections of wild type and transgenic Eucalyptus lines. Line 10A shows the highest ratio between the xylem and the total stein area in mature stem (C) but not in young stem sections (D).

Anatomical Characterization—Histological Analysis

For analyzing the structure of the vascular system, stem tissues were fixed in FAA (1.85% formaldehyde, 5% glacial acetic acid, 63% ethanol,), dehydrated through an ethanol series (70, 80, 90, and 100%, 30 min each), embedded in paraffin, sectioned in a microtome (Leica RM2245), and stained with Safranin-O/Fast-green (Johansen 1940). The sectioned material was observed in a Leica IM1000 microscope, and digital images were taken with a CCD camera DC2000 (Leica, Germany).

Carbon Partitioning Analysis

The relative amounts of lignin/cellulose/hemicellulose vs. starch in the transformed plants are examined. Cell wall material (CWM) was obtained as previously described by Foster et al. (Foster et al. 2010) with minor modifications; mature inflorescence sterns were air dried, ground and screened through 40 mesh sieve. Ground tissue was washed in 70% ethanol, vortexes and pelleted by centrifugation at 12,000 g for 10 min. The pellet was washed with chloroform:manethanol (1□1, v/v), vortexed, and centrifuged at 12,000 g for 10 min. The pellet was washed with acetone and, after centrifugation at 12,000 g for 10 min, was air-dried and weighed. Starch content was removed by incubation of the dried pellet with The dried powder was gelatinized in NaAc buffer (100 mM pH 5) for 20 min at 80° C. and freed of starch by amylase and pullulanase incubation. The pellet was washed with water and acetone and then air dried.

Cell Wall Analysis

Cellulose was quantified in CWM according to the Updegraff method (Updegraff 1969), the resulted cellulose was hydrolyzed by Saeman hydrolysis and quantified by the anthrone method (Scott Jr and Melvin 1953).

Monosaccharides composition of CWM was determined by two-stage sulfuric acid hydrolysis (Sluiter et aL 2004). After neutralization, monosaccharides (arabinose, galactose, glucose, mannose and xylose) in the hydrolyzates were were analyzed at 80° C. on a HPLC system equipped with PhenomenexRezex RPM-monosaccharide Pb² (8%) column (300 mm×7.80 mm) by RI detector using a gradient mobile phase of HPLC grade water. The lignin content of stems was determined by the acetyl bromide method (Fukushima and Hatfield 2001). Lignin composition was determined by thioacidolysis according to a method previously described (Robinson and Mansfield 2009). The resulted products were trimethylsilylated and then identified by GC/MS.

FIG. 6 shows alterations of cell wall constituents by FRK2 expression in Eucalyptus. Cell wall components percentage was calculated relative to wild type in three different transgenic lines, 13A, 15A and 19A.

Example 2 Increased Growth in FRK & SuSy—Double Trangenic Eucalyptus

Transgenic Eucalyptus plants are produced as in Example 1 but with Vector 4 illustrated in FIG. 1 and shown in SEQ ID NO. 18 is cloned. In this expression vector, fructokinase 1 is under 35S promoter and SuSy under SvBv promoter. AGS terminator is used for fructokinase and NOS terminator for SuSy. Source for Fructokinase 1 (FRK1) is tomato, optimized for Eucalyptus expression. Source for the SuSy is cotton optimized for eucalyptus expression. FRK1 and SuSy mRNA levels were analyzed by Real Time PCR using the following primers: primers for FRK1 are: Fw: CTCCGTTACATATCTGATCCTT; Rev: GACAGCATTGAAGTCACCTT (GenBank accession no. U64817). Primers for the Eucalyptus optimized SuSy from cotton are: Fw: TTGCATTGGCCGTGAG; Rev: GCAAGTCCTCAATTTCTGGG.

Activity Assay for Sucrose Synthase

Activity of disaccharide-cleaving enzymes was assayed in vitro at physiological pH levels in the cleavage direction, as described above. The reaction mixture for sucrose cleavage consisted of 64 μmoles MES buffer (pH 6.0), 125 μmoles sucrose, 0.5 μmoles uridine diphosphate (UDP), and 1, 5 or 10 μl of the crude enzyme preparation from various genotypes in a total volume of 0.4 ml in vials. Vials containing identical contents but lacking UDP constituted the controls. The tubes were incubated in a 30° C. water bath for 15 minutes and the reaction was terminated by adding DNS for measuring reducing sugars.

Soluble Carbohydrates and Starch

Sugars were extracted from stem segments by resuspending the segments in 5 ml of 80% ethanol in an 80° C. water bath for 60 min. This procedure was repeated twice. The ethanol solutions were combined and completely evaporated at 40° C. with the aid of continuous ventilation. The dried sugars were dissolved in 1 ml distilled water and were stored in −80° C. Sucrose, fructose, and glucose contents were determined by HPLC. The HPLC system consisted of a Shimadzu LC-10AT solvent delivery system and detection was by a Shimadzu RID10Arefractive index detector. Separation was carried out on an Alltech 700 CH Carbohydrate Column (Alltech, Deer-WeId,Ill., USA), maintained at 90° C. with a Xow rate of 0.5 ml/min, according to manufacturer's recommendations. The ethanol-insoluble residue was used to determine the concentration of starch in the grafted segment of the stern. Starch digestion was carried out by incubating and autoclaving samples with 6 ml water, and then adding 4 ml of buffer containing 200 units of amyloglucosidase and incubating overnight at 55° C. (Dinar et al. 1983). The amount of released glucose was determined using Sumner reagent. Optical density was determined at 550 nm .(Damari-Weissler, Rachamilevitch, Aloni, German, Cohen, Zwieniecki, Michele Holbrook and Granot 2009)

Example 3 Increased Growth in FRK & SuSy—Transformed Eucalyptus

Transgenic Eucalyptus plants are produced as in Example 2 but with Vector 5 illustrated in FIG. 1, and shown in SEQ ID NO. 19, is cloned. In this expression vector, fructokinase 1 is under 4CL-1 promoter and SuSy is under PAL2 promoter. AGS terminator is used for fructokinase and NOS terminator for SuSy. Source for Fructokinase 1 is tomato, optimized for eucalyptus expression. Source for the SuSy is cotton optimized for eucalyptus expression. FRK1 and SuSy mRNA levels were analyzed by Real Time PCR using primers as in Example 2.

Example 4 Increased Cell Wall Content in FRK—Transformed Tomato Tomato Transformation and Selection of Transgenic Lines

FRK2 was introduced in sense and antisense orientation under the control of the cauliflower mosaic virus 35 promoter into the binary vector pBI121 containing the neomycin phosphotransferasell gene (nptII) as a selectable marker. Transformation was done on MP-1, a tomato (L. esculentum) line known for its high transformation efficiency, essentially, as described by McCormick (McCormick 1991). T0 and T1 independent transgenic plants were analyzed by PCR and by DNA gel blotting for the presence and copy number of FRK2. FRK2 hemizygous and homozygous plants were identified among T1 seeds following kanamycin resistant segregation analysis of nptII, which is linked to FRK2.Two plants, FK3 and FK29, out of 15 independent T0 regenerants with sense-FRK2, were chosen based on their high expression and activity levels of FRK2 in leaves and fruits. Among the antisense-FRK2 transformed plants, only one plant out of 12 independent transformations (FK-3a,5) showed remarkable suppression of LeFRK2 expression and activity (German, Dai, Matsevitz, Hanael, Petreikov, Bernstein, Ioffe, Shabak, Schaffer and Granot 2003).

Modified Expression of FRK2 Affects Cell Wall Content

To examine the effect of FRK2 suppression or increased expression of FRK2 on cell wall Applicants analyzed total cell wall and cell wall constituents (cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin) in stems of FRK2-antisense transgenic tomato plants that had lower expression and activity of FRK2 compared to wild-type plants, and in transgenic tomato plants expressing potato FRK2 (accession number: Z12823) in the sense (coding) orientation (FRK2-sense plants) that had higher expression and activity of FRK2 compared to wild-type plants (FIG. 5A).

Cell Wall Content Analysis

Total cell wall, cellulose and lignin content in the stem were directly related to FRK2 expression and activity. The harvested plant material of 3 grams was oven-dried at 65° C. and was grounded to pass a 1-mm sieve. The samples were analyzed by the AOAC (1995) procedure no. 989.03, in which NDF and ADF were assayed according to Goering and Van. Soest (1970). The in vitro dry matter digestibility of (IVDMD) was evaluated according to Tilley and Terry (1963).

While FRK2-antisense plants had over 20% lower total cell wall and cellulose content compared to wild-type stem, sense plants had significantly higher total cell wall, cellulose and lignin content in stems (FIG. 5B).

FIG. 5 shows alteration of cell wall constituents by FRK2 expression. In FIG. 5A, FRK2 activity in wild-type (control), sense-FRK2 plants and antisense-FRK2 plants. Enzyme activity was measured on plant protein extract. In FIG. 5B, percentages of cell wall constituents in wild-type (control), sense-FRK2 plants (sense) and antisense-FRK2 plants (antisense).

All publications, patents, and patent applications cited in this specification are herein incorporated by reference as if each individual publication or patent application were specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.

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1. A transgenic plant comprising: a first nucleic acid encoding a heterologous fructokinase (FRK) protein that is overexpressed relative to a FRK in a corresponding wild-type plant; and a second nucleic acid encoding a heterologous sucrose synthase (SuSy) protein that is overexpressed relative to a SuSy in a corresponding wild-type plant.
 2. The transgenic plant of claim 1, wherein the FRK protein is selected from the group consisting of: a Solanum lycopersicum FRK1 polypeptide having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 2; functional variants of Solanum lycopersicum FRK1 and homologs of Solanum lycopersicum FRK1 having an amino acid sequence with at least 40% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 2; functional variants of Solanum lycopersicum FRK1 and homologs of Solanum lycopersicum FRK1 having an amino acid sequence with at least 90% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 2; a Solanum tuberosum FRK2 having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 4; functional variants of Solanum tuberosum FRK2 and homologs of Solanum tuberosum FRK2 having an amino acid sequence with at least 40% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 4; functional variants of Solanum tuberosum FRK2 and homologs of Solanum tuberosum FRK2 having an amino acid sequence with at least 90% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 4; a Solanum lycopersicum FRK2 polypeptide having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 3; functional variants of Solanum lycopersicum FRK2 and homologs of Solanum lycopersicum FRK2 having an amino acid sequence with at least 40% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 3; functional variants of Solanum lycopersicum FRK2 and homologs of Solanum lycopersicum FRK2 having an amino acid sequence with at least 90% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO:
 3. 3. The transgenic plant of claim 1, wherein the SuSy protein is selected from the group consisting of: a Solanum lycopersicum SuSy having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 5; functional variants of Solanum lycopersicum SuSy and homologs of Solanum lycopersicum SuSy having an amino acid sequence with at least 40% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 5; functional variants of Solanum lycopersicum SuSy and homologs of Solanum lycopersicum SuSy having an amino acid sequence with at least 90% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 5; a Gossypium hirsutum SuSy polypeptide having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1; functional variants of Gossypium hirsutum SuSy and homologs of Gossypium hirsutum SuSy having an amino acid sequence with at least 40% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 1; functional variants of Gossypium hirsutum SuSy and homologs of Gossypium hirsutum SuSy having an amino acid sequence with at least 90% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 1; a cotton SuSy polypeptide having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 17; functional variants of cotton SuSy and homologs of cotton SuSy having an amino acid sequence with at least 40% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 17; functional variants of cotton SuSy and homologs of cotton SuSy having an amino acid sequence with at least 90% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 17; a Solanum lycopersicum SuSy having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 6; functional variants of Solanum lycopersicum SuSy and homologs of Solanum lycopersicum SuSy having an amino acid sequence with at least 40% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 6; functional variants of Solanum lycopersicum SuSy and homologs of Solanum lycopersicum SuSy having an amino acid sequence with at least 90% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 6; a Solanum lycopersicum SuSy having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 7; functional variants of Solanum lycopersicum SuSy and homologs of Solanum lycopersicum SuSy having an amino acid sequence with at least 40% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 7; functional variants of Solanum lycopersicum SuSy and homologs of Solanum lycopersicum SuSy having an amino acid sequence with at least 90% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 7; a Solanum lycopersicum SuSy having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 8; functional variants of Solanum lycopersicum SuSy and homologs of Solanum lycopersicum SuSy having an amino acid sequence with at least 40% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 8; functional variants of Solanum lycopersicum SuSy and homologs of Solanum lycopersicum SuSy having an amino acid sequence with at least 90% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO:
 8. 4. The transgenic plant of claim 1, wherein said first and second nucleic acids are included in the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO.
 18. 5. The transgenic plant of claim 1, wherein said first and second nucleic acid are included in the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO.
 19. 6. The transgenic plant of claim 1, wherein each of said nucleic acids is operatively linked to a plant-functional promoter, and wherein the promoter is selected from the group consisting of: a constitutive promoter, a tissue-specific promoter, and developmental stage- specific promoter.
 7. The transgenic plant of claim 1, wherein the promoter is xylem tissue-specific promoter.
 8. The transgenic plant of claim 1, wherein the promoter is a cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter.
 9. The transgenic plant of claim 1, wherein each of said FRK and SuSy proteins is overexpressed in a secondary xylem tissue of the plant.
 10. The transgenic plant of claim 1, wherein said FRK is a heterologous FRK1 protein.
 11. The transgenic plant of claim 1, wherein said FRK is a heterologous FRK2 protein.
 12. The transgenic plant of claim 1, wherein said SuSy is a heterologous tomato SuSyl protein.
 13. The transgenic plant of claim 1, wherein said plant has a feature selected from a group consisting of: increased cell wall content, higher growth rate and increased biomass relative to the same feature in a corresponding wild-type plant.
 14. The transgenic plant of claim 1, wherein said plant has increased cell wall content relative to cell wall content in a corresponding wild-type plant.
 15. The transgenic plant of claim 1, wherein said plant is a tree.
 16. The transgenic plant of claim 1, wherein said tree is selected from the group consisting of: eucalyptus tree and poplar tree.
 17. A progeny of any generation of the transgenic plant of claim 1 wherein said progeny comprises said first nucleic acid encoding FRK and said second nucleic acid encoding SuSy.
 18. A seed of any generation of the transgenic plant of claim 1 wherein said seed comprises said first nucleic acid encoding FRK and said second nucleic acid encoding SuSy.
 19. A nucleic acid construct comprising: a first nucleic acid that encodes a fructokinase (FRK) protein; and a second nucleic acid that encodes a sucrose synthase (SuSy) protein, wherein each of said nucleic acids is operatively linked to a plant-functional promoter.
 20. A construct according to claim 19, wherein said construct imparts to transgenic plants containing said construct, a feature selected from a group consisting of: increased cell wall content, higher growth rate and increased biomass relative to the same feature in a corresponding wild-type plant.
 21. A construct according to claim 19, wherein said construct imparts to transgenic plants containing said construct, increased cell wall content relative to cell wall content in a corresponding wild-type plant.
 22. A construct according to claim 19, wherein said construct has the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO.
 18. 23. A construct according to claim 19, wherein said construct has the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO.
 19. 24. A vector comprising the construct of claim
 19. 25. A plant containing the vector of claim
 24. 26. A method of producing a transgenic plant comprising: (a) introducing an expression vector into a population of plants; wherein the expression vector comprises a nucleic acid that encodes a heterologous fructokinase (FRK) protein and a nucleic acid that encodes a heterologous sucrose synthase (SuSy) protein; (b) growing said population of step (a); and (c) selecting from said population of step (b) a plant having an increased cell wall content relative to a plant control.
 27. The method of claim 26, wherein the FRK protein is selected from a group consisting of: a Solanum lycopersicum FRK1 polypeptide having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 2; functional variants of Solanum lycopersicum FRK1 and homologs of Solanum lycopersicum FRK1 having an amino acid sequence with at least 40% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 2; a Solanum tuberosum FRK2 having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 4; functional variants of Solanum tuberosum FRK2 and homologs of Solanum tuberosum FRK2 having an amino acid sequence with at least 40% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 4; a Solanum lycopersicum FRK2 polypeptide having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 3; functional variants of Solanum lycopersicum FRK2 and homologs of Solanum lycopersicum FRK2 having an amino acid sequence with at least 40% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO:
 3. 28. The method of claim 26, wherein the SuSy protein is selected from a group consisting of: a Solanum lycopersicum SuSy having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 5; functional variants of Solanum lycopersicum SuSy and homologs of Solanum lycopersicum SuSy having an amino acid sequence with at least 40% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 5; a Gossypium hirsutum SuSy polypeptide having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1; functional variants of Gossypium hirsutum SuSy and homologs of Gossypium hirsutum SuSy having an amino acid sequence with at least 40% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 1; a cotton SuSy polypeptide having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 17; functional variants of cotton SuSy and homologs of cotton SuSy having an amino acid sequence with at least 40% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 17; a Solanum lycopersicum SuSy having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 6; functional variants of Solanum lycopersicum SuSy and homologs of Solanum lycopersicum SuSy having an amino acid sequence with at least 40% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 6; a Solanum lycopersicum SuSy having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 7; functional variants of Solanum lycopersicum SuSy and homologs of Solanum lycopersicum SuSy having an amino acid sequence with at least 40% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 7; a Solanum lycopersicum SuSy having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 8; functional variants of Solanum lycopersicum SuSy and homologs of Solanum lycopersicum SuSy having an amino acid sequence with at least 40% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO:
 8. 29. The method of claim 26, wherein each of said FRK and SuSy proteins is overexpressed in a secondary xylem tissue of said selected plant.
 30. The method of claim 26, wherein said first and second nucleic acid are included in the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO.
 18. 31. The method of claim 26, wherein said first and second nucleic acid are included in the nucleic acid sequence of SEQ ID NO.
 19. 32. A transgenic plant comprising: a nucleic acid encoding a heterologous fructokinase (FRK) protein that is overexpressed relative to a FRK in a corresponding wild-type plant; wherein said plant has increased cell wall content relative to cell wall content in a corresponding wild-type plant.
 33. The transgenic plant of claim 32, wherein the FRK protein is selected from a group consisting of: a Solanum lycopersicum FRK1 polypeptide having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 2; functional variants of Solanum lycopersicum FRK1 and homologs of Solanum lycopersicum FRK1 having an amino acid sequence with at least 40% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 2 a Solanum tuberosum FRK2 having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 4; functional variants of Solanum tuberosum FRK2 and homologs of Solanum tuberosum FRK2 having an amino acid sequence with at least 40% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 4 ; a Solanum lycopersicum FRK2 polypeptide having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 3; functional variants of Solanum lycopersicum FRK2 and homologs of Solanum lycopersicum FRK2 having an amino acid sequence with at least 40% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO:
 3. 34. The transgenic plant of claim 32, wherein said nucleic acids is operatively linked to a plant-functional promoter, and wherein the promoter is selected from the group consisting of: a constitutive promoter, a tissue-specific promoter, and a developmental stage- specific promoter.
 35. The transgenic plant of claim 32, wherein the promoter is a xylem tissue-specific promoter.
 36. The transgenic plant of claim 32, wherein the promoter is a cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter.
 37. The transgenic plant of claim 32, wherein said FRK is overexpressed in a secondary xylem tissue of the plant.
 38. The transgenic plant of claim 32, wherein said FRK is a heterologous FRK1 protein.
 39. The transgenic plant of claim 32, wherein said FRK is a heterologous FRK2 protein.
 40. The transgenic plant of claim 32, wherein said plant is a tree.
 41. The transgenic plant of claim 32, wherein said tree is a eucalyptus tree.
 42. The transgenic plant of claim 32, wherein said tree is a poplar tree.
 43. A progeny of any generation of the transgenic plant of claim 32, wherein said progeny comprises said nucleic acid encoding FRK.
 44. A seed of any generation of the transgenic plant of claim 32, wherein said seed comprises said nucleic acid encoding FRK.
 45. A method for producing a transgenic plant comprising: (a) introducing an expression vector into a population of plants; wherein the expression vector comprises a nucleic acid that encodes a fructokinase (FRK) protein; (b) growing said population of step (a); and (c) selecting from said population of step (b) a plant having an increased cell wall content relative to a control plant.
 46. The method of claim 46, wherein the FRK protein is selected from the group consisting of: a Solanum tuberosum FRK2 having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 4; functional variants of Solanum tuberosum FRK2 and homologs of Solanum tuberosum FRK2 having an amino acid sequence with at least 40% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 4; a Solanum lycopersicum FRK2 polypeptide having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 3; functional variants of Solanum lycopersicum FRK2 and homologs of Solanum lycopersicum FRK2 having an amino acid sequence with at least 40% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO: 3; a Solanum lycopersicum FRK1 polypeptide having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 2; functional variants of Solanum lycopersicum FRK1 and homologs of Solanum lycopersicum FRK1 having an amino acid sequence with at least 40% sequence identity to SEQ ID NO:
 2. 47. The method of claim 46, wherein said FRK is overexpressed in a secondary xylem tissue of said selected plant.
 48. The transgenic plant of claim 2, wherein said plant has a feature selected from a group consisting of: increased cell wall content, higher growth rate and increased biomass relative to the same feature in a corresponding wild-type plant.
 49. The transgenic plant of claim 2, wherein said plant has increased cell wall content relative to cell wall content in a corresponding wild-type plant.
 50. The transgenic plant of claim 2, wherein said plant is a tree.
 51. The transgenic plant of claim 2, wherein said tree is selected from the group consisting of: eucalyptus tree and poplar tree. 